Today, as we walk across Ban Jelačić Square, it is hard to imagine that beneath the tarmac, the tram tracks, and the layers of the medieval and modern city, there once existed a world that never quite became a city – yet was never truly empty. This is the story of a Roman Zagreb that had no forum, no amphitheatre, and no walls, but possessed its own roads, its dead, its coins, its waters, and its people.

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Traces of Life Before 1094

Long before the Diocese of Zagreb was founded in 1094, and before Kaptol and Gradec began their long and turbulent history, this area was well-known to the Romans. Not as an urban centre, but as the edge of the world—a frontier zone between the river, the hills, and the great trade routes.

The archaeological record is clear: a Roman coin from the era of Emperor Diocletian found at Ban Jelačić Square, lost or discarded, yet enough to confirm a presence. There are burials near Zagreb Cathedral that do not fit the medieval context, pointing instead to Late Antiquity or the Early Christian period. Necropolises in the districts of Trnje and Stenjevac sit alongside former roads, just as Roman custom dictated. Pottery, currency, and minor finds scattered across Dubrava, Maksimir, and western Zagreb are not the foundations of a city, but they are the footprints of a life once lived.

In Stenjevac, coins were found belonging to Emperor Trajan Decius, a mid-3rd-century ruler. Decius was no minor figure; he was the first Roman emperor to fall in battle against the barbarians, at a time when the Empire was beginning to fracture. The presence of his coinage in the Zagreb area suggests this was no backwater periphery, but the edge of a stable world—a zone where insecurity was felt, yet life still followed Roman rules.

Roads That Knew the Way; The Sava as Ally and Foe

The Romans viewed everything through the lens of their roads; they were the arteries of the Empire. The Zagreb area sat along vital routes connecting Siscia (Sisak) and Poetovio (Ptuj), linking Pannonia to the Alpine world. Traces of these thoroughfares can still be identified on the city’s western edge, particularly around Črnomerec, where natural passes over the Medvednica mountain dictated the direction of travel.

The River Sava was the key to everything. For the Romans, it was a transport corridor, a source of trade, and a link to the great cities of Pannonia. Conversely, the Sava was unpredictable, prone to flooding, and dangerous for permanent construction.

The river made this area important, but it was also the reason a Roman city never took root here. The Romans were loath to risk monumental architecture where the water might wash away the foundations.

Andautonia – The City That Was Meant to Be

The true Roman city of this region was Andautonia, dating from the 1st to the 4th century AD. Located in present-day Šćitarjevo, some ten kilometres southeast of Zagreb, it had everything a Roman city required: paved streets, a sewage system, public buildings, and baths. As was the case

throughout the Empire, the baths in Andautonia were more than just a place to wash; they were a social hub—a setting for business deals, political discourse, alliances, and leisure.

The Romans never founded a city on the site of modern-day Zagreb due to the marshy, unstable ground, the Sava’s floodplains, and the lack of natural defences in the lowlands. The most sensible location was near Andautonia; the Romans built only where it made practical sense.

Why Is Roman Zagreb So Rarely Mentioned?

The answer is simple. It lacks the “spectacle” of amphitheatres, triumphal arches, forums, or preserved walls. There are only fragments: graves, lost coins, and roads vanished beneath the asphalt. Yet, some of today’s thoroughfares unconsciously follow the logic of Roman engineers. The road remembers longer than the city.

Zagreb identifies more easily with the Middle Ages, as that is where its urban story begins. The Roman period remains quiet, modest, almost awkward—a reminder that the city was not always a city.

Nonetheless, the Roman era in Zagreb is not a void. Romans came here, lived here, passed through, and died here. They simply did not stay long enough to leave monuments in stone.

This is the story of the Roman Zagreb that never existed—but without which, Zagreb would never have been born.

From Idea to Realization The Zagreb funicular was the city’s first public transport system. It began operating in 1890, while the first horse-drawn tram was introduced a year later, in 1891. The funicular connects the Upper Town and Lower Town, and its construction is credited to Osijek-based entrepreneur David William Klein.

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In 1888, Mr. Klein began observing pedestrian traffic along Bregovita Street (today known as Tomićeva Street) leading up to the Upper Town. Based on his findings, foot traffic was sufficiently heavy, leading him to conclude that building a funicular would be a worthwhile investment. He applied to the City of Zagreb for permission, which was granted very quickly. Construction began on May 6, 1889, though not without difficulties. During the first test run in February 1890, the main bearing of the machine failed, causing the entire mechanism to break down. However, a second test run was successfully completed in less than a month.

From Its Beginnings to the Present Day The funicular officially opened on October 8, 1890, without any special ceremony. It originally operated on steam power, with two cars running alternately, and the engine room located at the upper station. The first passenger cabins were divided into three sections. The front sections, offering views of Grič or Ilica, were considered first class, while the middle section, with a poorer view, was designated as second class. Regular service was established only on April 23, 1893.

Over the years, the funicular experienced frequent breakdowns, and passengers occasionally had to step out and push it. In 1929, it came under the ownership of the City of Zagreb. Steam power was replaced by electricity in 1934. Due to wear and the need for renovation, operations were suspended in 1969. A new funicular was put into service on July 26, 1974. The Vienna-based company Waagner-Biro was responsible for the drive system and vehicles, while Siemens handled the electrical components.

To ensure reliable operation—and to spare passengers from ever having to push it again—the funicular undergoes regular annual maintenance. Currently, as part of the “Revitalization of the Zagreb Funicular” project, comprehensive restoration works have been underway since January 20, 2025, and are scheduled to be completed by the end of March 2026. In addition to modernizing the drive system and installing new cabins, the project also includes improvements in accessibility.

Interesting Facts Because it has preserved its original exterior appearance, structural design, and most of its technical features, the Zagreb funicular is legally protected as a cultural monument. It is maintained and operated by Zagreb Electric Tram (ZET).

It is among the shortest funicular railways in the world used for public transport. The track is 66 meters long, and the ride lasts just 64 seconds.

In addition to numerous presidents, members of parliament, mayors, archbishops, and dignitaries, the funicular also carried Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall in 2016.

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We explore what social life was like in the past, when balls were the main form of social gathering. They were places where people presented themselves, met one another, and socialized. Unlike today’s social events, these occasions were far more complex. Everything had its purpose and its proper place.

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In the 19th and early 20th centuries, dance balls in Zagreb were key social events. Newspapers devoted lengthy articles to them, and dance was both a fashion and an essential social skill. Balls were organized to mark important celebrations or cultural events, and the dance school served as a place where young ladies and gentlemen prepared to appear at balls with polished dancing skills and refined manners.

The First Dance School in Zagreb

The first dance school in Zagreb was founded by the Italian ballet artist Pietro Coronelli. He arrived in Zagreb in 1859 at the invitation of Count Ambroz Vranyczany, in order to teach dance to his daughter Clotilda. Soon after his arrival, Coronelli established a permanent dance school that offered instruction in both dance and etiquette for the city’s citizens. The first advertised announcement of his school appeared in the newspapers in 1860.

The first private school of dance and etiquette in Zagreb began operating in the palace of Ambroz Vranyczany at 2 Jelačić Square. The school later moved to the old shooting range at Tuškanac, and its last known location was at 2 King Tomislav Square. In addition to these venues, 19th-century Zagreb had various spaces for dancing, ranging from private palaces and social salons to large public halls such as Stanković’s Theatre (today the seat of the Zagreb City Assembly) and the Narodni dom at 18 Opatička Street.

What Did One Have to Learn?

The classical dances that were taught and performed most often included the Viennese waltz, the English waltz, the polka, and the mazurka. These dances formed part of the standard repertoire of dance education and social events, symbolizing elegance and refinement.

In addition to dance, one also had to learn proper etiquette. This encompassed everything that enabled a person to move, communicate, and dance in public with dignity, self-control, and social acceptance. Correct posture was essential, as were the manner of walking through a salon, entering a ballroom, and moving among guests. One learned how to sit, stand, and turn—always without sudden or improper movements. Everything was precisely prescribed: how a gentleman invited a lady to dance, how an invitation was accepted or declined, the order of dances and respect for the dance card, conversation during the dance, and the avoidance of excessive closeness, leaning in, or loud laughter. In short, everything was meant to be discreet, calm, and measured.

Zagreb and Viennese balls

If we compare Viennese and Zagreb balls of that era, we can say that traditional Viennese balls are known for their highly formal etiquette, marathon waltzing, and ceremonial openings with strictly synchronized choreography, often held in grand halls. Zagreb balls, by contrast, were social events shaped by local customs, closely tied to the city’s cultural and civic life, and not necessarily as formal or as grandiose as their Viennese counterparts.

In essence, the Zagreb ball was a place for social networking, a ritual of young people’s entry into society, and a marker of belonging to European bourgeois culture.

After Coronelli’s death in 1902, the dance school continued to operate under the leadership of his daughters, Elvira and Bianca, until around 1970.